Rohan D’Souza
The religion that we know as Buddhism took shape in the central parts of India based on the insights and teachings of Sakyamuni Gautam Buddha. It spread far and wide in parts of central as well as east and south-east Asia and evolved into many forms such as Hinayana, Mahayana and Vajrayana. It declined and more or less disappeared from most parts of India by the medieval times, while it continued to flourish in other parts of Asia.
What is less known is the presence of Buddhism in the southern parts of India and more specifically in Kerala. Some archaeological Buddhist ruins are seen in states like Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. More recently, rock edicts of Ashoka and other Buddhist iconography have been discovered in Kalaburgi district in Karnataka which sheds more light on historical Buddhism in South India.[i]
However, almost none of these seem to exist in Kerala. The same goes with literature in Malayalam, which offer us very few clues. Scholars over the last seventy years or so have gradually pieced together a history of Buddhism in Kerala through reference to various sources such as Sangam literature, travelogues, idols of Buddha and Buddhist icons, converted Buddhist temples, inscriptions and several cultural and linguistic practices.
Therefore the scope of this article is to explore the presence of Buddhism in Kerala in pre medieval times by suitable references to the above mentioned sources.
There are archaeological evidences of settlements in Kerala dating back to the Neolithic age[ii] from at least 3000 years ago if not more. However our interest for the purpose of this article will centre on the time a little after the Buddha, the 3rd century BCE and after, when Buddhism started becoming popular due to the efforts of Emperor Ashoka.
One of the first documented dynasties that ruled over most of Kerala is the Chera dynasty, who ruled from the 1st century CE to the 3rd century CE. This extended from Kollam in the south to Kochi and parts of the Malabar region in central and north Kerala[iii]. This area is considered to be socio-culturally a part of the region known as Tamilakam, the Tamil speaking area between Tirupati Hills in the north, Kanyakumari in the south and flanked by the seas in the west and east.[iv] This was the period when Buddhism started making its presence felt in the southern parts of India as well as Sri Lanka due to the proselytising efforts of Emperor Ashoka, through his son and daughter, Mahendra and Sanghamitra.
The geographic features of Kerala, with the Western Ghats straddling the eastern part limited contact to the rest of the subcontinent. But the long coast on the west ensured maritime contact including trade. This took place with Sri Lanka according to some sources from 1000 BCE.[v] This contact ensured not only trade and economic relations but also cultural interactions through which Buddhist thoughts and ideas arrived in Kerala, apart from other routes.
Inscriptions
One of the historical pieces of evidence pointing to the presence of Buddhism in Kerala is the rock edicts of Emperor Ashoka. An inscription found in Girnar in Saurashtra and five other places make a mention of providing medicinal treatment to man and beast in areas apart from his dominion, places that they call frontages such as Cholas, Pandyas, the Satyaputra, the Keralaputra, Tamrapani (Sri Lanka) etc.[vi] It is interesting to note that even though the names of the Cholas and Pandyas are used, Cheras are not. This is because the Chera kingdoms came into being few centuries after the time of Ashoka. The term Keralaputra (variously spelt as Ketalaputo, Kelalaputo, and Keradaputro) is speculated by scholars to be referring to Kerala. Ashoka’s empire did stop short of Tamil Nadu and Kerala but Buddhism did not. This is clear from another edict (Rock Edict XIII) where the names of the kingdoms where the Dharma prevailed are given.[vii] The edict mentions lands “below the Cholas, Pandyas and as far as Tamrapani”. While Keralaputra or Kerala is not directly mentioned here, it can be safely assumed that the use of ‘below the Cholas and Pandyas and as far as Tamrapani (Sri Lanka)’ is meant to cover the entire southern region south of Chola and Pandya territory (modern day Tamil Nadu) to Sri Lanka. It can thus be inferred from Rock Edict XIII, that Buddhism was introduced to Tamil kingdoms and Kerala in the time of Ashoka.
Literary Sources including Travelogues
As mentioned earlier, literary sources mentioning or documenting Buddhism in Kerala in the Malayalam language are very sparse, if non-existent. Therefore, one must look at such sources in the Tamil language, specifically dating to the Sangam period, which was roughly from 3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE. One of the oldest surviving literary work from this period is the Tolkappiyam, the earliest grammatical work in Tamil, does not have any references to Buddhism in it. Neither does the Tirukkural of Tiruvalluvar, a few centuries later.[viii] However, two other well known classic from that period, Manimekalai and Silappadikaram have connections to the Chera dynasty and parts of the territory of modern Kerala state. Silappadikaram is authored by a Chera prince Ilango, who is considered to be the brother of the Chera king, Senguttuvan[ix] and the Manimekalai by Koolavanihan Sathanar There are several references in Manimekalai and Silappadikaram which go onto show that Sathanar and Ilango were friends and collaborators.[x] This and the appearance of Chera king Senguttuvan in both epics, go on to show that these works are contemporary writings. Manimekalai is also considered to be the sequel to Silappadikaram.
Silappadikaram does not deal with Buddhism specifically but has casual references to it and other religions prominent at that time, Jainism and Vedic Brahmanism. However Manimekalai have a very strong Buddhist flavour and theme andis about a dancer who embraces Buddhism. It is seen as a religious piece of work that propounds Buddhist philosophy. The connection of these pieces to modern day Kerala is clear through the presence of the Chera king, Senguttuvan in both, but there are also references to places that display Buddhist culture. The central character of Manimekalai is seen as travelling to several towns of that time including one called Vanji, which is considered to be Karur-Vanji, the capital of the Cheras on the west coast. Some accounts identify this place as modern day Kodungallur in Kerala. There is a mention of a Buddhist Vihara in Vanji in the book, which from its description seems to have been a very popular one.[xi] Vanji as a location comes up in the Silappadikaram as well where King Gajabahu from present day Sri Lanka attends a religious ceremony at this location. Gajabahu, a historical character, was known to be a devout Buddhist king. These references thus show that Buddhism as a religious practice was already entrenched in Kerala when these epics were written, around the 2nd century CE.
Travelogues written by pilgrims from China such as Xuanzang, who visited India in the 7th century CE, also point out to the presence of Buddhism in Kerala. He refers to a place called Malakuta in South India, which scholars consider to be synonymous with the area along the west coast of Kerala, and says that Buddhist temples here are in ruins. He also observed that there was a presence of several religions.[xii] From this period of decline, it is also said that there was a revival of Buddhism from then to the 11th century in Kerala, initially under Mahayana Buddhist king of the Ay dynasty, Vikramaditya Varaguna, who ruled in this region in the 9th century CE. This is apparent through invocation of the Buddha in his copper plate grants. [xiii]
Images of Buddha in Kerala
There have been many instances of idols of Buddha seen or identified in various parts of Kerala, the most famous one being the Karimadan in Alapuzha district. Apart from that Buddha images have been reported from various places such as Onampally, a small village in Ernakulam district, which display many of the Buddhist idol specifications such as robe over the left shoulder, crown of hair and flame of enlightenment. Similar Buddha idols have also been recovered from places such as Mavelikara, Kayamkulam, Pala, Kottupuram and Pattanam.[xiv]
Socio-cultural Aspects
It is speculated that before Buddhism arrived in Kerala, there were largely tribal and animistic religious rituals, sans any religious literature or strict guidelines. S.N. Sadashivan suggests that this made the transition to Brahmanic Hinduism in Kerala different from other parts of the country. He proposes that Kerala took the route from Primitivism to Buddhism to Brahmanic Hinduism as opposed to the route of Primitive Brahmanism to Buddhism to Brahmanic Hinduism in other parts of the country.[xv]
He also suggests that an organised society existed in Kerala in pre-historic times which emphasised local autonomy and self government, which in turn also was a reason for a smooth assimilation of Buddhist philosophy and ideas into the place. Buddhist thought placed emphasis on self-directed religious enquiry at the individual level as well as a social pursuit of the religion without the barriers of social hierarchy of caste. This blended well with the culture of Kerala of that time.
There are several practices such as kettukazchas seen in central Kerala, where images of bulls made out of hay, cloth and timber are paraded in temple processions. These are also done with temple cars or carriages to carry images of gods and goddesses. Chinese monk Fa-Hien who visited India in the 5th century CE, described such similar practices in central India where carts with images of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas are taken out in processions. Similar is the case with processions involving elephants carrying idols in temple processions, fairly unique to Kerala, which Fa-Hien reported to have seen in Sri Lanka, where the tooth relic of the Buddha was similarly carried around on elephants in processions.[xvi]
The Sri Lankan Connection
Another socio-cultural connection of Kerala to Sri Lanka is in the form of the Ezahava community. The community which forms a substantial percentage of Hindus in Kerala now are said to have been Buddhists who migrated from Sri Lanka. One of the clues of this is in their name Ezhava or Ilava which is derived from Ilam, the Tamil name for Sri Lanka. Ezhavas in some parts of Kerala are also called Tiyas, which is seen to be a corruption of Dvipan or islander. There are more clues to the Sri Lankan Buddhist origin of Ezhavas in folk songs called Vattakan Pattukal, especially one related to an Ezahava hero Valia Aromal Chekavar, from the 13th century CE, which narrate a tale of King Cheraman Perumal writing to the king of Ceylon of Sri Lanka for Ezhavas to be sent to Kerala and how Chekavar and others set sail from Ilavuthunadu (Sri Lanka) to Kerala. [xvii] The lack of the presence of the Ezahava community in Tamil Nadu further goes to bolster the theory that they migrated to Kerala from Sri Lanka, given the ancient sea route for trade between these two places.
What is interesting about this migration is that scholars speculate that the Ezhavas who migrated from Sri Lanka would most certainly have been Buddhists given the predominant nature of Buddhism in Sri Lanka at that time. And further, a mass migration of the sort presumed to Kerala would not have been possible if there was hostility to Buddhism there. This suggests a congenial, encouraging and welcoming environment for Buddhists, which possibly made the migrating Ezhavas feel comfortable to freely practice their religion and the cultural and social aspects connected to it.[xviii]
The entry of Mahayana into Kerala, which already had adherents to Hinayana or Theravada form of Buddhist is also ascribed partly to exiled Sri Lankan monks in the 4th century CE. It is said that there was a schism in the Buddhist Sangha then between followers of Hinayana and Mahayana, the latter of which was a more recent evolution of Buddhism. This in turn led to the exile of about 60 monks to Kerala, who in turn worked to spread the doctrine of Mahayana in Kerala. [xix]
Conclusion
As in other parts of India, Buddhism in Kerala declined due to a combination of factors, which included a resurgent and aggressive Brahmanism of Adi Shakaracharya supported by local kings and chieftains. The increasing corruption in the Buddhist monasteries, where monks deviated from their principles and were getting distanced from the lay public, added to the decline. However if one looks deeper into daily living and cultural life of Kerala, one can find echoes of a Buddhist past and culture, suggests possibilities of exploring a renewed egalitarian, inclusive and compassionate Buddhist outlook for the modern times.
[i] Ajay Sekher, Sannati and Kanaganahally: Asoka’s Last Resorts in South India, https://ajaysekher.net/2022/01/28/sannati-and-kanaganahally-asokas-last-resorts-in-south-india/
[ii] A Sreedhara Menon, Survey of Kerala History, p. 54.
[iii] S. N. Sadashivan, A Social History of India, p. 106.
[iv] Ajit Kumar, Buddhism in Kerala and its Socio-Cultural Ramifications, Journal of History and Archaeological History, No. 19, 2018, p. 178.
[v] S. N. Sadashivan, A Social History of India, p. 107.
[vi] PC Alexander, Buddhism in Kerala, p. 22.
[vii] Ibid., p. 24.
[viii] Ibid., p. 16.
[ix] Ajit Kumar, Buddhism in Kerala and its Socio-Cultural Ramifications, Journal of History and Archaeological History, No. 19, 2018, p. 178.
[x] PC Alexander, Buddhism in Kerala, p. 31.
[xi] Ibid., p. 41.
[xii] Ajit Kumar, Buddhism in Kerala and its Socio-Cultural Ramifications, Journal of History and Archaeological History, No. 19, 2018, p. 179.
[xiii] PC Alexander, Buddhism in Kerala, p. 63.
[xiv] Ajay Sekher, A Tranquil Buddha on the Periyar Bank: Buddha at Topil in Onampally, https://ajaysekher.net/2014/08/17/tranquil-buddha-periyar-bank-buddha-topil-onampally/
[xv] S. N. Sadashivan, A Social History of India, p. 105.
[xvi] Ajit Kumar, Buddhism in Kerala and its Socio-Cultural Ramifications, Journal of History and Archaeological History, No. 19, 2018, p. 182.
[xvii] PC Alexander, Buddhism in Kerala, p. 123, 124.
[xviii] Ibid., p.132, 133.
[xix] S. N. Sadashivan, A Social History of India, p. 127.
Reflections..... 